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lycians
Death of Sarpedon
The civilization of Lycia is one of the most enigmatic of the ancient world. Lycians legacy of impressive cities, built amongst the dramatic landscapes of the area, still holds many mysteries. The most distinct and striking remnant of Lycian culture is unquestionably their rock tombs – ornate creations carved from the soft limestone hills of the area, but there is much else of interest about them. The historic sites they left behind are, in many cases, very well preserved.
Lycia was a collective of some twenty of so cities, which combined individual freedom and independence, with a strong political unity – an impressive achievement that the Greeks admired them for. In fact they were one of the few nations not considered ‘Barbarians’ by the Greeks. The Lycian Federation is the first known instance of a democratic union, and contrasted markedly with the constantly warring Greek city-states.
Throughout their long history they remained a fiercely independent people who would defend themselves to the bitter end. Twice in their history the population of the principal city of Xanthos committed mass suicide rather than surrender against vastly superior invading forces.
They held out against Greek rule for many centuries and were the last region in the whole Mediterranean coast to succumb to Roman rule. The Romans and the Persians did effectively rule Lycia at various times but, even then, they were allowed to retain the Lycian union, and maintain their way of life.
Lycia was a collective of some twenty of so cities, which combined individual freedom and independence, with a strong political unity – an impressive achievement that the Greeks admired them for. In fact they were one of the few nations not considered ‘Barbarians’ by the Greeks. The Lycian Federation is the first known instance of a democratic union, and contrasted markedly with the constantly warring Greek city-states.
Throughout their long history they remained a fiercely independent people who would defend themselves to the bitter end. Twice in their history the population of the principal city of Xanthos committed mass suicide rather than surrender against vastly superior invading forces.
They held out against Greek rule for many centuries and were the last region in the whole Mediterranean coast to succumb to Roman rule. The Romans and the Persians did effectively rule Lycia at various times but, even then, they were allowed to retain the Lycian union, and maintain their way of life.
Sarpedon was a son of Zeus and Laodamia, daughter of Bellerophon, and also a Lycian King. He fought on the side of the Trojans, with his cousin Glaucus, during the Trojan War becoming one of Troy's greatest allies and heroes.
The Lycian Civilisation
Detail from a rock tomb in Sidyma
Lycia came under the control of the Persian Empire in 546 BC when Harpagus of Media, a general in the service of Cyrus conquered Asia Minor. Harpagus's descendants ruled Lycia until 468 BC when Athens took control of the area. Following the ejection of the Persians, Athens and Sparta fought the Peloponnesian Wars, the majority of Lycian cities defaulted from the Delian League, with the exception of Telmessos and Phaselis. In 429 BC, Athens sent an expedition against Lycia to try to force it to rejoin the league. This failed and the Lycians once came under Persian domination and by 412 BC, Lycia is was fighting on the side of Persia. The Persian satraps were re-installed, but (as the coinage of the time shows) they allowed local leaders the freedom to rule. Persia held Lycia until it was conquered by Alexander The Great of Macedon during 334-333 BC.
By the time Alexander the Great arrived in Lycia in 333/4 BC, the Lycians must have had enough of Persian control because we know that when Alexander arrived, he did not receive a hostile reception from the Lycians - it seems that he may have been welcomed as a saviour. Xanthos opened its gates voluntarily, whereas before it had resisted foreign invasions, and all other Lycian cities quietly submitted to Alexander. The Roman historian Anabasis Alexandri in his Campaigns of Alexander (the most important source on Alexander) tells us that Lycia added 10 triremes to Alexander's gathered fleet which crushed Darius' Tyrian allies at the siege of Tyre. Lycian cavalry units were also incorporated into Alexander's army, along with some from Lydia, Syria and other Asian satraps.
By the time Alexander the Great arrived in Lycia in 333/4 BC, the Lycians must have had enough of Persian control because we know that when Alexander arrived, he did not receive a hostile reception from the Lycians - it seems that he may have been welcomed as a saviour. Xanthos opened its gates voluntarily, whereas before it had resisted foreign invasions, and all other Lycian cities quietly submitted to Alexander. The Roman historian Anabasis Alexandri in his Campaigns of Alexander (the most important source on Alexander) tells us that Lycia added 10 triremes to Alexander's gathered fleet which crushed Darius' Tyrian allies at the siege of Tyre. Lycian cavalry units were also incorporated into Alexander's army, along with some from Lydia, Syria and other Asian satraps.
From archaelogical excavations in the Karataş-Semahoyuk area near Elmali, examples of earthenware pottery have been found reveal that the region was settled by the third millennium BC. Moreover, the fact that Lycian place names containing, "-nd", "-nt", "-ss" (Kalynda, Arykanda, Telmessos, Idebessos) occur in a number of Anatolian sites also dated to the fourth millennium B.C. verifies this early settlement date linguistically. An axe has also been found at Tlos, dated around 2000 BC
Ancient Egyptian records describe the Lycians as allies of the Hittites. Lycia may have been a member state of the Assuwa league of ca. 1250 BC, appearing as 'Lukka or Luqqa. After the collapse of the Hittite Empire, Lycia emerged as an independent kingdom. The region was never unified into a single territory in antiquity, but remained a tightly-knit confederation of fiercely independent city-states. Lycia is often mentioned by Homer as an ally of Troy. In Homer's Iliad, the Lycian contingent was said to have been led by two prestigious warriors: Sarpedon (son of Zeus and Laodamia) and Glaucus (son of Hippolochus).
Ancient Egyptian records describe the Lycians as allies of the Hittites. Lycia may have been a member state of the Assuwa league of ca. 1250 BC, appearing as 'Lukka or Luqqa. After the collapse of the Hittite Empire, Lycia emerged as an independent kingdom. The region was never unified into a single territory in antiquity, but remained a tightly-knit confederation of fiercely independent city-states. Lycia is often mentioned by Homer as an ally of Troy. In Homer's Iliad, the Lycian contingent was said to have been led by two prestigious warriors: Sarpedon (son of Zeus and Laodamia) and Glaucus (son of Hippolochus).
Rock Tombs in Myra, Turkey
After the death of Alexander the Great in 324 BC, his generals fought amongst themselves over the succession. Lycia fell into the hands of the general Antigonus by 304 BC. In 301 BC Antigonus was killed by an alliance of the other successors of Alexander, and Lycia became a part of the kingdom of Lysimachus, who ruled until he was killed in battle in 281 BC. By 240 BC Lycia was part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, centred on Egypt, and remained in their control through 200 BC. It ostensibly came under Seleucid control by 190 BC, when the Seleucids' were defeated in the Battle of Magnesia resulted in Lycia being awarded to Rhodes in the Peace of Apamea in 188 BC.
The Lycians, intolerant as ever of foreign domination, just couldn't accept the fact that they were put under Rhodian rule. Rather than obey the Rhodians, the Lycians rebelled in 187 B.C. but were not successful in this attempt. Another uprising took place six years later, whereby the Lycians sent a delegation to Rome stating that they were being treated like slaves and that their honour and dignity were at stake in this matter. The Senate gave the Lycians a favourable reply, to the effect that they were supposed to be merely friends and allies of the Rhodians. Encouraged by this, the Lycians took up arms again, and hostilities continued for another six years, but by 171 B.C., the Lycians were again exhausted. However, Rome's relationship with Rhodes had cooled considerably, and consequently, the Senate decided to put an end to Rhodian control Lycia and declared the country free in 167 B.C.
The Lycians, intolerant as ever of foreign domination, just couldn't accept the fact that they were put under Rhodian rule. Rather than obey the Rhodians, the Lycians rebelled in 187 B.C. but were not successful in this attempt. Another uprising took place six years later, whereby the Lycians sent a delegation to Rome stating that they were being treated like slaves and that their honour and dignity were at stake in this matter. The Senate gave the Lycians a favourable reply, to the effect that they were supposed to be merely friends and allies of the Rhodians. Encouraged by this, the Lycians took up arms again, and hostilities continued for another six years, but by 171 B.C., the Lycians were again exhausted. However, Rome's relationship with Rhodes had cooled considerably, and consequently, the Senate decided to put an end to Rhodian control Lycia and declared the country free in 167 B.C.
Limestone reliefs of Greek and Trojan soldiers on a Lycian tomb (c. 380 B.C.)
Lycia's opposition against Mithridates VI, the king of Pontus, who was fighting against Roman domination of Anatolia was appreciated by Rome and after the defeat of Mithridates, the Lycian federation was rewarded with independence from the Roman province of Anatolia and some extra territories were given.
During the Roman civil wars between Octavian, Marc Antony and the assassins of Julius Caesar (Brutus, Cassius, etc.), Lycia fell victim to the power struggle that ensued. In 42 BC, Brutus attempted to secure Xanthos and once again, the residents chose mass suicide rather than submit to Roman rule. However Antony, and later, Augustus, would eventually secure the territory under their own regimes and Lycia emerged as a successful area of Roman Asia. Under Augustus, the Lycian Federation maintained independence. This independence continued until the reign of Emperor Claudius. He included Lycian and Pamphylian territories into the Roman Empire. Under the Roman rule, Lycians became more wealthy and prosperous. Lyciarch (elected leader) still remained and controlled the Roman officials under a special agreement with the Roman Senate.
During the Roman civil wars between Octavian, Marc Antony and the assassins of Julius Caesar (Brutus, Cassius, etc.), Lycia fell victim to the power struggle that ensued. In 42 BC, Brutus attempted to secure Xanthos and once again, the residents chose mass suicide rather than submit to Roman rule. However Antony, and later, Augustus, would eventually secure the territory under their own regimes and Lycia emerged as a successful area of Roman Asia. Under Augustus, the Lycian Federation maintained independence. This independence continued until the reign of Emperor Claudius. He included Lycian and Pamphylian territories into the Roman Empire. Under the Roman rule, Lycians became more wealthy and prosperous. Lyciarch (elected leader) still remained and controlled the Roman officials under a special agreement with the Roman Senate.
Two Tombs on the Xanthos Agora
Mithridates on a Coin
With the decline of the Roman Empire, so too Lycian fortunes declined. In Byzantine times there were small settlements around the coast, a number of Byzantine churches will be seen in isolated spots, but the interior was not heavily populated as in Lycian times. In the late Middle Ages this region was viewed as a wilderness, the region of "Uc", the "Frontier" of the Ottomans, and the coast was the haunt of pirates who had semi-permanent settlements ashore. The Lycians and Lycian culture faded into vague folk-memories of a proud and independent people who had built great stone cities and buried their dead in magnificent tombs. Not until those intrepid travellers of the 19th century, Francis Beaufort, Charles Newton, Thomas Spratt, Charles Fellows and Edward Forbes, was the existence and extent of Lycian culture to be brought to the notice of the west.
Ruined Byzantine Church in Kekova, Turkey
Twenty-three cities joined the Lycian League which was established at this time. Of these Tlos, Xanthos, Pinara, Patara, Myra and Olympos each had three votes. In addition, cities such as Antiphellos, Aperlae, Arycanda, Candyba, Cyaenai, Limyra, Phellos, Rhodiapolis, Sidyma, Telmessos, Araxa and Podalia were all members of this League, with one ore two votes and minted coins in their own names. This League had a Senate which held a congress every autumn in a different city to take care of the League's business and decide on issues such as war, peace, army organisation and budgetary matters. A Lyciarch (leader), who would be chosen at these meetings, held this post for a period of one year. Lycia's system of representative government with privileges and obligations in direct ratio to a city's classification is the outstanding feature of the Lycian Union. Its system of elected representatives was unique in the ancient world and much admired by the ancients and later peoples. In fact, the writers of the constitution of the United States studied the Lycian federal system of government with proportional representation as a possible model for their own government.
Lycian Assembly Building in Patara
The Lycians had a reputation for independence and fought for it against all odds, often to the last man. On at least two occasions we know that they took extreme measures rather than capitulate. In 546 BC the Persians defeated the Lydian king, Croesus, and advanced on Lycia. On the Plain of Xanthos the Lycians met the much superior forces of the Persians, but despite a valiant struggle had to retreat into the city. Herodotus recorded the tragic finale to the battle:
"The Persian Army entered the plain of Xanthos under the command of Harpagos, and did battle with the Xanthians. The Xanthians fought with small numbers against the superior Persians forces, with legendary bravery. They resisted the endless Persian forces with great courage, but were finally beaten, their womenfolk, children, slaves and treasures into the fortress. This was then set on fire from, below and around the walls , until destroyed by conflagration. Then the warriors of Xanthos made their final attack on the Persians, their voices raised in calls of war, until every last man from Xanthos was killed."
Five hundred years later in 42 BC the same thing happened all over again when Brutus besieged Xanthos. Against much larger Roman forces the Lycians fought to the finish, and when they realised there was no hope of victory, they once again killed their women and children and burnt the city down. This time Plutarch tells us Brutus' emotions at this second city-wide suicide:
"It was so tragically a sight that Brutus could not bear to see it, but wept at the very mention of the scene. Thus the Xanthians, after a long space of years, repeated by their desperate deed the calamity of their forefathers, who after the very same manner in the Persian Wars had fired their city and destroyed themselves."
"The Persian Army entered the plain of Xanthos under the command of Harpagos, and did battle with the Xanthians. The Xanthians fought with small numbers against the superior Persians forces, with legendary bravery. They resisted the endless Persian forces with great courage, but were finally beaten, their womenfolk, children, slaves and treasures into the fortress. This was then set on fire from, below and around the walls , until destroyed by conflagration. Then the warriors of Xanthos made their final attack on the Persians, their voices raised in calls of war, until every last man from Xanthos was killed."
Five hundred years later in 42 BC the same thing happened all over again when Brutus besieged Xanthos. Against much larger Roman forces the Lycians fought to the finish, and when they realised there was no hope of victory, they once again killed their women and children and burnt the city down. This time Plutarch tells us Brutus' emotions at this second city-wide suicide:
"It was so tragically a sight that Brutus could not bear to see it, but wept at the very mention of the scene. Thus the Xanthians, after a long space of years, repeated by their desperate deed the calamity of their forefathers, who after the very same manner in the Persian Wars had fired their city and destroyed themselves."
We made our houses graves
And our graves are homes to us
Our houses burned down
And our graves were looted
We climbed to the summits
We went deep into the earth
We were drenched in water
They came and got us
They burned and destroyed us
They plundered us
And we,
For the sake of our mothers,
Our women,
And for the sake of our dead,
And we,
In the name of our honor,
And our freedom,
We, the people of this land,
Who sought mass suicide
We left a fire behind us,
Never to die out...
And our graves are homes to us
Our houses burned down
And our graves were looted
We climbed to the summits
We went deep into the earth
We were drenched in water
They came and got us
They burned and destroyed us
They plundered us
And we,
For the sake of our mothers,
Our women,
And for the sake of our dead,
And we,
In the name of our honor,
And our freedom,
We, the people of this land,
Who sought mass suicide
We left a fire behind us,
Never to die out...
This poem was found on a tablet and clearly refers to this gruesome story:
translated by Azra Erhat
The Lycians fierce defence of their independence meant they were the last region to be incorporated into the Roman provinces in Asia Minor, and even then were given a gret deal of freedom to run their own affairs.
The Theatre at Xanthos, Turkey
Greek warriors from the Nereid Temple in Xanthos, Turkey
Coinage of Lycia confirms the testimony of ancient historians, especially with regard to the federal league; among no other ancient people were federal institutions so wisely made and firmly rooted as among the Lycians. It is clear that some sort of federation existed between the early dynasts (coins were minted representing them). A distinctive symbol marks the federal coinage of the cities that took part in the league, a Triskeles, which may be a solar emblem representing rotary motion. If so, this may refer to Apollo, a Lycian national deity, the god of light.
Lycian Stater - Head of Athena / Triskeles
Lycian Coin - Horned Pan / Triskeles
The Lycian language was spoken in what is now the Antalya/Mugla region of Turkey (Teke Peninsula) up to about the 3rd Century BC, when the Lycians adopted Greek as their language. Lycian is thought to have developed from Luwian, a language spoken in Asia Minor before the arrival of the Hittites (c. 18th century BC), and was related to Lydian.
The Lycian alphabet was adapted from an archaic version of the Doric Greek alphabet. Only a few of the Lycian letters were original inventions, or possibly borrowed from other alphabets. Around 180 inscriptions in Lycian dating from the fifth and fourth centuries BC have been found. As current knowledge of the language, particularly its grammar, is quite limited, not all the inscriptions have been fully deciphered.
The Lycian alphabet was adapted from an archaic version of the Doric Greek alphabet. Only a few of the Lycian letters were original inventions, or possibly borrowed from other alphabets. Around 180 inscriptions in Lycian dating from the fifth and fourth centuries BC have been found. As current knowledge of the language, particularly its grammar, is quite limited, not all the inscriptions have been fully deciphered.
The 'Xanthos Obelisk' is not actually an obelisk at all but a 5th century BC pillar tomb at Xanthos that has suffered a lot of damage. An inscription covers all four side of the stone and is the longest Lycian inscription known (250 lines on all four sides). Linguistically it falls into three parts: beginning on the south side it continues onto the east side and part of the north side in the normal Lycian language. It then follows with a twelve-lined poem in Greek, but the rest of the north side and the whole of the west side is filled with a strange form of Lycian, perhaps ceremonial, which appears elsewhere only on a tomb in Antiphellos. This inscription is believed to be a narrative account of the dead hero's exploits.
Notable features
•Type of writing system: alphabet
•Writing direction: left to right in horizontal lines
•Number of letters: 29 (23 consonants and 6 vowels)
•Some letters have several variant forms
•A colon-like symbol was generally used to separate words
•Type of writing system: alphabet
•Writing direction: left to right in horizontal lines
•Number of letters: 29 (23 consonants and 6 vowels)
•Some letters have several variant forms
•A colon-like symbol was generally used to separate words
Carved Inscription
Xanthos Obelisk
Lycian Alphabet
Sources: heliotrope | wikipedia | lycian turkey | focus | explore turkey | all about turkey | unrv | omniglot
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